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Can “Knowledge” Be Imperfect?

Can “Knowledge” Be Imperfect?

Last updated on: July 4, 2026 at 3:21 pm by Roger E. Olson

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Can “Knowledge” Be Imperfect? 2026-07-04T15:21:11-05:00 Roger E. Olson

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Here I only want to tell a story and briefly interpret it. The story is about the planets Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. (Yes, I know that Pluto has been demoted to a “dwarf planet” by the leading astronomical society. Some astronomers still consider it a planet. Whether it is or not is not relevant to the story.)

Many years ago, even in the early 19th century, astronomers announced the existence of a “new planet” in the solar system and it came to be named Neptune. However, before 1846 it was not observed. Astronomers believed in it because of observed irregularities in Uranus’s orbit. That is to say they “posited it” before they saw it.

Then another “planet” was discovered and came to be named Pluto. Again, some astronomers believed in its existence before it was actually proven to exist. That was because of irregularities in Neptune’s orbit. Its existence was only “known” when it was observed.

Then, recently, astronomers decided Pluto is not a planet but something else.

All this raises questions about science and “knowledge.” In a sense, knowledge of Neptune was imperfect until 1846 when it was observed. It turned out that belief in it was justified long before it was known. Or was that justified belief in it knowledge? It turned out to be knowledge. But do astronomers know everything there is to know about Neptune? They know much from direct observation by Voyager 2’s flyby in 1989. But more and better knowledge of it could be had by humans or even machines landing on the planet.

Before Neptune was seen, belief in it was justified belief. Did that count as “knowledge?” Well, yes, according to astronomers who believed there could be no other explanation of the irregularities of Uranus’s orbit. But it was certainly possible, then, to deny its existence. Once it was seen, however, belief in its existence became justified true belief, knowledge in a new and better way.

Was belief that Pluto is a planet knowledge? Then it was considered knowledge. Now most astronomers believe it was not knowledge. It was justified belief but not justified true belief. Now it is justified but untrue belief, not knowledge. Or will something change and belief in it as a planet become justified true belief?

My point is that even in science, “knowledge” is rarely absolute. What counts as knowledge is usually justified true belief. But much of it could turn out to be justified untrue belief, so not knowledge. The future can determine the past as in the cases of Neptune and Pluto.

Nonfundamentalist Christianity says that our knowledge of God through Jesus Christ and the Bible, revelation, is justified belief and we consider it knowledge. We call it justified true belief, knowledge. Could it turn out to be justified untrue belief, in other words, not knowledge? Intellectual humility says yes, it’s possible. But we don’t go around wringing our hands, worrying about that. Because so much depends on it being true knowledge and because there is evidence (viz., the resurrection of Jesus Christ).

The Apostle Paul seems to have grasped this insight when he said that Now we see as through a glass darkly and only in the future will we see perfectly, “face to face.” This is one reason true Christianity never persecutes unbelievers. But we ask that unbelievers not persecute us, either. And this is the reason for Christian apologetics, not to prove Christianity true but to show that Christian belief is justified enough to count NOW as knowledge. But all knowledge outside the analytic realm, in the synthetic realm, is imperfect insofar as the future is still open.

My theology professor Wolfhart Pannenberg taught us that all theological truth claims must be made as hypotheses because the future is yet open. I heard him wax eloquent about this when a student dared to challenge him about the role of “faith.” He said that in the church and its worship we set aside the imperfection of knowledge of God and praise and worship him AS IF our belief were absolutely true and that we can have, through the Holy Spirit, an inward certainty, certitude, of what we believe. But in the theological realm we must hold open the possibility that we could be wrong. And the way forward in a pluralistic world is dialogue, not force.

*Note: If you choose to comment, make sure your comment is relatively brief (no more than 100 words), on topic, addressed to me, civil and respectful (not hostile or argumentative), and devoid of pictures or links.

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